Chapter 2 – Literature review

Computer games are often long and challenging yet many children enjoy playing them, persevering until they reach their goal (Gee, 2007).  Between the ages of 10 and 14 children seek stimulation (Eglesz et al., 2005), and learners who are accustomed to playing sophisticated games and accessing online virtual worlds may find conventional lessons boring (Prensky, 2001; McGonigal, 2011). McGonigal (2011:127) believes that there is a “growing disconnect between virtual environments and the classroom”, arguing that reality does not reward, teach, inspire, engage and bring people together the way that games do.  Greenfield (1984) suggests that we should be looking at how to make learning experiences as ‘addictive’ as games.  However, just as it is wrongly assumed that young people are more web-literate than older people (Whitton, 2010), it should not be assumed that all young people play computer games and will prefer a game-based lesson to traditional lessons.  Game-based learning should not be regarded as a ‘quick fix’, however, with careful consideration, can be another effective teaching tool (Hong et al., 2009; Whitton, 2010, 2011).

Malone (1980, 1982) identified three key elements that encourage engagement with learning – challenge, fantasy and curiosity. Whitton (2010) notes that the novelty of playing computer games in the 1980s may have influenced the results of Malone’s study – children today will not be as easily impressed since computer games are commonplace.  However, these key elements arguably still apply today.

The ‘Zone of Proximal Development’, a concept that was introduced by the psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1978), focuses on what learners can achieve with help and support from others, leading to what they can achieve by themselves. To maximise learning, play needs to be structured and appropriate support provided, as learners can become frustrated without the support and guidance of a teacher or more competent peer, particularly if learners have no prior knowledge of the subject (Gee, 2007; Sung & Hwang, 2013).

Sheldon (2012) incorporated elements from MMORPGs into his lectures to create a ‘multiplayer classroom’. He observes that well-designed games provide scaffolded learning, social learning, integrated assessment, feedback, variable reinforcement, and keep players motivated and in flow. He argues that with imagination and creativity game elements can transform any classroom, as any task can be portrayed as a challenge to overcome. Curry (2010) also states that any classroom can incorporate MMORPG elements, in particular, the three key elements of guilds, working of groups, and quests^[1] Quests often involve “warlike activities such as slaying monsters […] but can also be peaceful, including diplomatic missions such as settling disputes” (Curry, 2010: 250). . However, just as educational games need careful design considerations, so too does the learning space for a multiplayer classroom; a poorly designed space can be detrimental to learning (Gee, 2007; Hong et al., 2009; Sung & Hwang, 2013).

Failure isn’t negative in games

A lot of negative stress is produced at school since grades are a reflection of a student’s performance, and failure goes on their permanent record (Eglesz et al., 2005; McGonigal, 2011). Failure, and the fear of failing, can inhibit learning, discouraging learners from trying and thus progressing to their full potential.  Digital games treat mistakes differently: players are not afraid of failure – making mistakes is how players learn (Gee, 2007; McGonigal, 2011; Sheldon, 2012). Gee (2007:36) says that games turn players into active problem solvers who perceive mistakes as “opportunities for reflection and learning”: the focus is shifted from the negative perception of getting something wrong to getting closer to the intended goal.  McGonigal (2011) observes that failing in a good game can also be fun and interesting, even empowering.

The psychosocial moratorium

An important characteristic of digital games is the opportunity to operate in safe surroundings (Eglesz et al., 2005; Gee, 2007; Whitton, 2010, 2011) and this is a key benefit of game-based learning; where learners feel able to take risks and make mistakes, active and critical learning can occur (Gee, 2007; Whitton, 2010, 2011).  The psychologist Eric Erikson (1968) termed this safe learning space “the psychosocial moratorium”.

Self-esteem

Success in a challenging activity, including games, can boost self-esteem (Malone, 1980; Gee, 2007; Whitton, 2010). Games scaffold learning (Gee, 2007; Whitton, 2011) so players gradually increase their knowledge of the game-world and develop skills appropriate for their ability level; this can ‘repair’ damaged self-esteem, as a player observing their own progress through a game, realising that they are capable of learning what to do, can build confidence (Gee, 2007).

Challenge

‘Challenge’ is a prominent theme in studies regarding game-based practices in education (Malone, 1980; Greenfield, 1984; Newman, 2004; Gee, 2007; Whitton, 2010; McGonigal, 2011; Sheldon, 2012). Challenge is about having a clear goal and working towards it (Sheldon, 2012) and challenging activities intrinsically motivate learners (Hong et al., 2009; McGonigal, 2011). Digital games commence with challenging but achievable tasks, which gradually increase in difficulty as players’ skills increase and knowledge of the game-world is gained (Greenfield 1984; Gee, 2007; McGonigal, 2011). Players quickly lose interest in games which are too facile or too difficult (Malone, 1980, 1982; Greenfield 1984; Gee, 2007; Chatfield, 2010). Challenges should be compelling, adaptable to different ability levels and make players feel rewarded for doing their best (Gee, 2007; Whitton, 2010; McGonigal, 2011).

Learners who are not challenged can become bored and frustrated, and learners working beyond their level of competence can become discouraged and give up (Gee, 2007). Gee (2007:3) states that learning should be as “pleasantly frustrating” as game-play. Good games not only teach players how to automatize their skills, they also push them to the periphery of their competence to learn and master new skills. As players progress through games they are forced to rethink their strategy, undo former mastery and find alternative ways of solving problems: this makes success all the more satisfying and learning is at its most rewarding (Gee, 2007).

Teamwork: collaboration, community and competition

Games help to build stronger social bonds and the positive social feedback associated with playing games can make individual success more rewarding (Gee, 2007; McGonigal, 2011). A benefit of social learning is the positive feelings experienced when working towards a common goal; the more time we spend interacting within our social networks, the more likely we are to generate a subset of positive emotions known as “prosocial emotions.” (McGonigal, 2011:82).

Most games published today offer multiplayer modes (Eglesz et al., 2005) encouraging collaboration, providing opportunities to learn with and from others, and adding a competitive element (Griffiths & Davies, 2002; Whitton, 2010; McGonigal, 2011). Many gamers prefer multiplayer settings or co-operative games over competitive games (Gee, 2007; McGonigal, 2011) and Gee (2007: 8) says most young people perceive games as “almost entirely social”. Eglesz et al. (2005: 120) conducted a survey involving children aged 10 to 14 which revealed that 75% of 14-year-olds preferred playing with others.  Since competitive games can trigger negative emotions such as anger, aggression, disappointment or humiliation (Whitton, 2010; McGonigal, 2011), competition should be used with caution in educational settings as some may find it stressful and demotivating.  Dividing students into teams and setting team competitions is a way of including a competitive element with less pressure on individuals, shifting the focus from individual grades to a group effort (Whitton, 2010; Sheldon, 2012).

Teamwork acts as scaffolding for other students (Dickey, 2006; Gee, 2007) although teachers may also have to scaffold the teamwork. Creating teams supports collaborative learning, providing an opportunity for learners to help each other, as in games when more experienced players coach novices (Greenfield, 1984; Gee, 2007; Whitton, 2010). Learning with and from others is an important social aspect of MMORPGs (Griffiths & Davies, 2002; Whitton, 2009). Mentoring friends, encouraging their development and celebrating their achievements can make us happier individuals (McGonigal, 2011), fostering a positive class atmosphere and supporting the process of learning (Whitton, 2011).

Collaborative learning involves learners in the topic and promotes shared critical thinking, which can heighten learners’ awareness of their own thought processes (Schäfer et al., 2013). Evidence suggests that cooperative and collaborative learning games can be useful tools for making abstract subject matter more accessible to learners (Schäfer et al., 2013). McGonigal (2011) categorises collaboration into three kinds of concerted effort – cooperation, coordination and cocreation. The latter “sets collaboration apart from other collective efforts” (McGonigal, 2011:268) as it involves creating something as a team that would be impossible to create by oneself.  Collaboration does not necessarily have to take place while the game is played; learners can carry out individual tasks that will benefit the team as a whole (Whitton, 2010; McGonigal, 2011).

Collaboration is challenging and may not always be successful, “leading to wasted time and negative feelings” (Bluemink et al., 2010: 366). However, research suggests that collaborative learning should be encouraged so that young people develop skills for their future careers and we fulfil our potential to be extraordinary collaborators (McGonigal, 2011; Sung & Hwang, 2013).

MMORPGs are intensely social and community is at the heart of MMORPG design, with frequent collaborative activities and interactions between players: players can join guilds or teams to complete quests and challenges which would be difficult to achieve individually (Humphreys, 2005; Ang & Zaphiris, 2010; Curry, 2010; Peterson, 2010; McGonigal, 2011; Sheldon, 2012).  McGonigal (2011:172) observes that being part of a community and “actively caring about something together” creates a sense of belonging which “feels good”.  Belonging and ‘fitting in’ is extremely important for 10-to-18-year-olds (Eglesz et al., 2005) so the emphasis on every player being actively involved is an element which could have educational benefits (Schäfer et al., 2013).

MMORPG players rely on other players – who may be strangers in the ‘real world’ – to work together and do their best, promoting reciprocal respect (Curry, 2010; McGonigal, 2011). Tasks may sometimes be boring, yet players persevere, often due to feelings of social obligation to fellow teammates (Curry, 2010).  Creating a class community or ‘community-of-practice’ (Ang & Zaphiris, 2010) and incorporating collaborative activities could potentially foster this same sense of social obligation, encouraging positive participation out of respect for their classmates, even when tasks seem boring (Curry, 2010).  The opportunity to contribute to a team effort may also help to build the self-esteem of learners who feel like ‘low-achievers’: sometimes they just need to be given the chance to contribute (McGonigal, 2011).

Positive by-product

During a game-based learning experience, there is the potential to learn a range of valuable transferable skills (Gee, 2003; Peterson, 2010). Leadership skills can emerge from team games (Abernethy, 1974) and problem-solving, lateral thinking, teamwork, negotiation, cooperation, social interaction and etiquette, which may not have been the intended learning objectives, are nonetheless valuable, and may not be reflected in the assessment (Whitton, 2010).

Flow and immersion

The psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (1990, 2004) defined ‘flow’ as a highly engaged state of heightened functioning, where one becomes so engrossed in an activity they lose track of time and almost forget the world around them (McGonigal, 2011; Wu et al., 2013).  When we experience flow, we lose our self-consciousness and can focus on the task at hand (Whitton, 2010).  A good game immerses players into the game-world, making them forget themselves and the passage of time (Newman, 2004).  Customisable profiles and characters give players a sense of ownership and can aid immersion (Peterson, 2010). Giving learners roles and a sense of identity can also lead to better immersion and flow (Malone, 1980; Murray, 1998; Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; McGonigal, 2011). Sheldon (2012:229) says, “the more your classroom becomes the world of the game, the more immersed your players will be in the experience”.

Narrative and fantasy

An interesting narrative can aid immersion and engagement into the game-world (Whitton, 2010) and “the backstory gives an emotional “in” for context and character role” (Begg et al., 2005:5). Although many computer games lack the aspects of narrative which make stories compelling, narrative can be used as the ‘glue’ to make activities cohesive (Humphreys, 2005; Whitton, 2010).

MMORPGs are built around a narrative, often with a fantasy-based theme, and players adopt the role of a character (Ang & Zaphiris, 2010): the classical portrayal of good versus evil fulfils the players’ power fantasies making them feel like they are part of something epic (McGonigal, 2011).  Abernethy (1974: 312) observes that “one needs only to go into a big store and watch a child suddenly stop and gaze to realize the power of fantasy”.  Role-playing is a way of introducing the element of fantasy into the classroom. Challenges or ‘quests’, such as treasure hunts or puzzles, can be set for learners, often involving ‘character’ interaction (Whitton, 2010).  Fantasy can potentially create an intrinsically motivating learning environment; however, if the fantasies employed do not appeal to the target audience they may have a detrimental effect on the learning environment, making it less interesting instead of more (Malone, 1981).

Motivation and rewards

MMORPGs keep players engaged and committed to the game by rewarding positive actions (Gee, 2007; Ang & Zaphiris, 2010; Chatfield, 2010; McGonigal, 2011; Wu et al., 2013).  Games would be discouraging and boring if the only reward was at the end (Sheldon, 2012) so players are usually rewarded with experience points (XP) which accumulate in the form of a progress bar, leading to players ‘levelling up’ and advancing in the game: this is a major motivation for players (Wu et al., 2013). Games offer an unlimited number of opportunities for players to gain points, so a multiplayer classroom should provide enough tasks for students to gain XP. An important design feature of Sheldon’s (2012:263) multiplayer classroom is that XP, once awarded, is not taken away, since research demonstrates that “humans become irrational” when they lose something they have. Achievable tasks will boost students’ self-esteem and a constantly growing progress bar will motivate students to keep working in order to ‘level up’ (Sheldon, 2012).

Learning is not only a cognitive endeavour, it also “involves the emotions and the will” (Alexander & Boud, 2001: 8). Intrinsically motivated learners are more likely to adopt a deep approach to learning (Marton & Saljo, 1984; Kawachi, 2003; Entwistle, 2005; Hartnett et al., 2011; Schäfer et al., 2013), gaining confidence to try learning difficult material, and experiencing interest and enjoyment (Malone, 1982; Cameron & Pierce, 1994; Begg et al., 2005; Schäfer et al., 2013). Games engage players in achievable, satisfying work, fulfilling our desire for intrinsic reward: “participation is its own reward”:  (McGonigal, 2011:244).

Extrinsically motivated learners work towards an end goal or reward; however, extrinsic motivation is not always positive, as when attention is focused on a reward, “motivation is removed when the reward is removed” (Sheldon, 2012:75). Pressure and tension comes with extrinsically motivated actions, leading to anxiety and low self-esteem (Cameron and Pierce, 1994) and extrinsically motivated learners are more likely to adopt a surface approach to learning, developing a shallow understanding of the subject at hand (Marton & Saljo, 1984; Entwistle, 2005). If the end goal is a high grade for an exam, learners may narrow the focus of their learning to only include what is ‘necessary’ to achieve the grade.  The ‘conflict’ between developing a deep understanding of the subject and achieving the desired grade or qualification is described by Beaty et al. (2005: 74) as “an unintended side-effect of the assessment system”.

Extrinsic rewards narrow the focus of the learner, hindering lateral thinking; however, if linear thinking is required extrinsic motivation works effectively (Pink, 2009).  Extrinsic incentives can also be useful for encouraging initial engagement with a task or topic. Sheldon (2012: 79) says that “the multiplayer classroom comes with both extrinsic and intrinsic rewards, just as MMOs^[2]Massively Multiplayer Online games.  do”.

Curiosity and randomness

Curiosity is “a common motive in playing a game” (Amory et al. cited in Kirriemuir, 2002: 3). Curiosity and uncertainty keep players engaged, as the game will be boring if players know what to expect (Malone, 1980; Sheldon, 2012). Activities which arouse curiosity can intrinsically motivate learners, so adding a novel or unexpected element to lessons could be beneficial (Malone, 1982; Hong et al., 2009; Whitton, 2010). Many games use a random factor to ensure that player choices and actions do not have identical outcomes (Sheldon, 2012). If used carefully, randomness can add an unexpected element, helping to create an optimally complex learning environment (Malone, 1982).  The learners in Sheldon’s (2012) study accepted the randomness in their lessons and appeared to enjoy the element of chance.

Autonomy and control

Livingstone (cited in Newman, 2004: 16) found that children look for three things in games: “control, challenge, freedom”. Deci and Ryan’s Self-Determination Theory (Ryan and Deci, 2000; Vallerand, 2001; Shroff et al., 2007; Chen & Jang, 2010; Hartnett et al., 2011) identifies three inherent and universal psychological needs: autonomy, competence and relatedness.  Similarly, Pink (2009) identifies autonomy, mastery, and purpose as three factors which promote intrinsic motivation and states that ignoring or neglecting any of these will limit what learners are capable of achieving.

To promote autonomous behaviour, learning environments need to support the individual’s autonomy and encourage active learning (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Hartnett et al., 2011; Whitton, 2010). The importance of active learning is stressed in Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle (1993) (figure 2.1), where learners participate in an activity that provides them with concrete experience. MMORPGs start with easy tasks which steadily become more difficult as players progress through the game (Gee, 2007; McGonigal, 2011; Sheldon, 2012) providing ‘concrete experience’ for players to build on.

Figure 2.1

Autonomy can intrinsically motivate learners while the absence of choice and control can negatively affect intrinsic motivation (Iyengar & Lepper, 1999; Hong et al., 2009; Chen & Jang, 2010; Hartnett et al., 2011). Giving learners active control over their learning and a chance to explore and experience authentic contexts for themselves is in keeping with the constructivist perspective of learning (Whitton, 2010).

Activities that allow personal involvement are appealing to children (Greenfield, 1984) and digital games provide a variety of choices, such as avatar name and appearance (Waelchli, 2010). The act of play and engaging in games ultimately depends upon players’ voluntary participation and choice to ‘buy into’ the fantasy narrative or game-world (Abernethy, 1974; Grimes and Feenberg, 2009). Ownership, control, and taking an active role in the work flow can help immerse learners in their work, making them feel more invigorated and optimistic about their learning experience (Greenfield, 1984; Whitton, 2010; McGonigal, 2011; Sheldon, 2012). In Sheldon’s (2012) study, learners could choose their crafting activities and quests, giving them control and a sense of ownership over their learning.

Feedback

Feedback is extremely important and can help the process of learning (Whitton, 2011). In digital games there is a close connection between the players’ actions and feedback, where the game’s responses are almost instantaneous and recognition of achievements is immediate. Whether in the form of a score, points, levels, or a progress bar, the feedback provided lets players know where they are in the game and how close they are to the goal, motivating them to keep playing, and increasing self-esteem and feelings of self-worth (Malone, 1980; McGonigal, 2011; Sheldon, 2012).  A multiplayer classroom cannot give immediate feedback, however, it is important that the feedback system is as prompt and responsive as possible to players’ achievements (Sheldon, 2012) especially for young children who “need immediate responses” from games (Eglesz et al., 2005: 123). Continuous feedback supports active learning, helping learners to process information more effectively and encouraging them to persevere (Whitton, 2010; McGonigal, 2011; Schäfer et al., 2013).

Possible failures

Whitton (2010: 37) observes that “not everyone is interested in playing computer games at all, and there may be a variety of different motivations for those who do play – not all compatible with learning”. Sheldon (2012) says that some of the learners seemed to enjoy the multiplayer classroom but were frequently absent and did not study enough. It is important to recognise that not all learners will find a multiplayer classroom appealing or make the most out of this style of learning.